Coping with out-of-pocket health payments: empirical evidence from 15 African countries
Adam Leive, Ke Xu
Volume 86, Number 11, November 2008, 849-856
Table 3. Likelihood of borrowing and/or selling assets for each income quintile, type of household, characteristics of household head and level of expenditure for inpatient care, as determined by logit regression, using data from 15 African countries
| Burkina Faso | Chad | Congo | Cote d’Ivoire | Ethiopia | Ghana | Kenya | Malawi | Mali | Mauritania | Namibia | Senegal | Swaziland | Zambia | Zimbabwe | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | 0.30** | –0.28** | –0.41 | 0.20 | –0.03 | –0.08 | –0.41** | 0.19 | –0.10 | –0.00 | –0.16 | 0.13 | –0.33* | 0.09 | –0.02 |
| (SE) | (0.14) | (0.13) | (0.25) | (0.14) | (0.13) | (0.12) | (0.20) | (0.13) | (0.13) | (0.14) | (0.14) | (0.20) | (0.20) | (0.14) | (0.19) |
| 3 | –0.04 | –0.34*** | –0.20 | 0.11 | –0.39*** | –0.09 | –0.37* | 0.30** | –0.18 | –0.16 | –0.20 | –0.16 | –0.17 | –0.04 | 0.07 |
| (SE) | (0.14) | (0.13) | (0.27) | (0.15) | (0.13) | (0.13) | (0.22) | (0.13) | (0.13) | (0.14) | (0.14) | (0.19) | (0.23) | (0.16) | (0.21) |
| 4 | 0.12 | –0.47*** | –0.51* | –0.16 | –0.34** | –0.20 | –0.67*** | 0.36** | –0.35** | –0.08 | –0.97*** | –0.12 | 0.00 | –0.21 | –0.00 |
| (SE) | (0.15) | (0.14) | (0.28) | (0.16) | (0.14) | (0.14) | (0.23) | (0.14) | (0.14) | (0.16) | (0.16) | (0.21) | (0.26) | (0.19) | (0.20) |
| 5 | –0.18 | –0.67*** | –0.26 | –0.28 | –0.66*** | –0.40** | –1.19*** | 0.33** | –0.46*** | –0.01 | –1.63*** | –0.17 | –0.65*** | –0.73*** | –0.76*** |
| (SE) | (0.17) | (0.15) | (0.30) | (0.18) | (0.17) | (0.16) | (0.27) | (0.16) | (0.15) | (0.18) | (0.19) | (0.22) | (0.23) | (0.25) | (0.20) |
| Urban | –1.06*** | –0.35*** | –0.15 | –0.05 | 0.09 | 0.02 | –0.54*** | –0.42*** | –0.63*** | –0.65*** | 0.00 | –0.11 | –0.53*** | 0.13 | –0.62*** |
| (SE) | (0.09) | (0.10) | (0.22) | (0.10) | (0.15) | (0.10) | (0.17) | (0.14) | (0.11) | (0.12) | (0.10) | (0.13) | (0.17) | (0.15) | (0.13) |
| Size | 0.04*** | 0.01 | 0.07** | 0.04*** | 0.11*** | –0.01 | 0.04 | –0.00 | 0.05*** | 0.03* | 0.07*** | 0.01 | –0.01 | 0.01 | 0.06** |
| (SE) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.03) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.03) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.03) | (0.02) | (0.03) |
| Schoolingb | |||||||||||||||
| Primary | –0.11 | 0.06 | 0.13 | –0.06 | 0.13 | 0.01 | –0.28 | 0.39*** | –0.11 | –0.13 | –0.02 | –0.05 | –0.01 | –0.24* | 0.11 |
| (SE) | (0.12) | (0.10) | (0.30) | (0.11) | (0.11) | (0.10) | (0.18) | (0.12) | (0.11) | (0.12) | (0.12) | (0.18) | (0.22) | (0.14) | (0.20) |
| Secondary or higher | –1.05*** | –0.18 | –0.01 | –0.23 | 0.01 | –0.27* | –0.45** | 0.12 | –0.67*** | –0.26* | –0.09 | –0.40** | –0.22 | –0.36 | –0.48** |
| (SE) | (0.17) | (0.15) | (0.31) | (0.14) | (0.11) | (0.16) | (0.22) | (0.20) | (0.24) | (0.13) | (0.17) | (0.18) | (0.26) | (0.24) | (0.23) |
| Age > 60 years | 0.20* | 0.17* | 0.38* | 0.15 | 0.12 | 0.60*** | 0.67*** | 0.50*** | 0.20** | 0.37*** | 0.35*** | 0.35** | 0.28 | 0.52*** | 0.56*** |
| (SE) | (0.11) | (0.10) | (0.22) | (0.11) | (0.10) | (0.09) | (0.16) | (0.11) | (0.08) | (0.10) | (0.12) | (0.13) | (0.19) | (0.12) | (0.16) |
| Male | –0.50*** | –0.36*** | –0.31* | –0.50*** | 0.06 | –0.70*** | –0.34** | –0.41*** | 0.13 | –0.49*** | –0.40*** | –0.49*** | 0.01 | –0.51*** | –0.22 |
| (SE) | (0.15) | (0.10) | (0.19) | (0.11) | (0.12) | (0.09) | (0.15) | (0.10) | (0.27) | (0.10) | (0.09) | (0.16) | (0.18) | (0.13) | (0.13) |
| 1 | 0.42* | 0.23 | 1.25*** | 0.37 | –0.24 | 0.72*** | 0.09 | 0.46** | 0.16 | 0.36 | –0.31 | 0.53* | 0.62 | 1.21*** | –0.20 |
| (SE) | (0.24) | (0.20) | (0.40) | (0.24) | (0.35) | (0.19) | (0.27) | (0.21) | (0.27) | (0.22) | (0.24) | (0.29) | (0.40) | (0.35) | (0.35) |
| 2 | 0.06 | 0.56*** | 0.91** | 0.51** | 0.94*** | 0.97*** | 1.09*** | 0.17 | 0.49** | 0.72*** | –0.05 | 0.79*** | 0.50 | 0.18 | 0.01 |
| (SE) | (0.24) | (0.18) | (0.40) | (0.23) | (0.29) | (0.17) | (0.30) | (0.25) | (0.23) | (0.23) | (0.23) | (0.29) | (0.31) | (0.20) | (0.28) |
| 3 | 0.19 | 0.76*** | 1.03*** | 0.01 | 1.03*** | 1.15*** | 0.76* | 0.50** | 0.62** | 1.01*** | 0.17 | 0.77*** | 0.51 | 0.14 | –0.38 |
| (SE) | (0.27) | (0.20) | (0.38) | (0.24) | (0.39) | (0.17) | (0.43) | (0.22) | (0.26) | (0.20) | (0.22) | (0.27) | (0.32) | (0.26) | (0.25) |
| 4 | 0.16 | 1.14*** | 1.49*** | 0.49** | 1.16*** | 1.33*** | 0.75* | 0.18 | 1.02*** | 1.03*** | 0.13 | –0.06 | 0.04 | 0.60*** | –0.52* |
| (SE) | (0.24) | (0.21) | (0.42) | (0.23) | (0.32) | (0.18) | (0.39) | (0.22) | (0.24) | (0.25) | (0.23) | (0.36) | (0.37) | (0.23) | (0.28) |
| 5 | 0.35 | 0.67*** | 1.81*** | 0.66*** | 1.68*** | 1.83*** | 1.29*** | 0.53** | 0.44** | 1.50*** | 0.08 | 1.06*** | 0.09 | 0.45* | –0.09 |
| (SE) | (0.29) | (0.19) | (0.36) | (0.23) | (0.35) | (0.18) | (0.38) | (0.22) | (0.22) | (0.24) | (0.25) | (0.28) | (0.36) | (0.24) | (0.31) |
| Constantd | 1.41*** | 0.53*** | –0.67** | –0.58*** | –1.35*** | –0.60*** | 0.38 | –1.02*** | –0.74*** | 0.32** | –0.05 | –0.32 | –0.10 | –0.34** | 0.78*** |
| (SE) | (0.17) | (0.13) | (0.33) | (0.15) | (0.15) | (0.13) | (0.23) | (0.14) | (0.29) | (0.14) | (0.16) | (0.24) | (0.25) | (0.17) | (0.25) |
| 4 480 | 3 027 | 2 313 | 2 598 | 4 099 | 3 528 | 3 836 | 4 336 | 2 995 | 2 583 | 2 849 | 2 388 | 1 779 | 3 094 | 2 381 | |
| 0.905 | 0.230 | 0.551 | 0.017 | 0.015 | 0.760 | 0.310 | 0.073 | 0.037 | 0.000 | 0.085 | 0.854 | 0.213 | 0.205 | 0.003 | |
*P < 0.10, **P < 0.05, ***P < 0.01. SE, standard error.a Quintile 1 is the lowest income category and quintile 5 is the highest. Reference category: quintile 1.b Reference category: less than primary schooling.c Reference category: households with out-of-pocket payments for outpatient care.d The constant corresponds to the value of the regression function when each explanatory variable equals zero.