Caution must be taken when interpreting all data presented, and differences between information products published by WHO, national public health authorities, and other sources using different inclusion criteria and different data cut-off times are to be expected. While steps are taken to ensure accuracy and reliability, all data are subject to continuous verification and change. All counts are subject to variations in case detection, definitions, laboratory testing, and reporting strategies between countries, states and territories. Other important considerations are highlighted under the respective Data Sources below. The designations employed and the presentation of these materials do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WHO concerning the legal status of any country, territory or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted and dashed lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. [1] All references to Kosovo should be understood to be in the context of the United Nations Security Council resolution 1244 (1999). [2] A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).

1. Snake Range Distribution GIS Data

Distribution data are indicative of current expert consensus and available data from a range of sources, including public databases, field guides and peer-reviewed publications. As documentation of biodiversity improves, and new information emerges, species distributions may be amended to reflect new knowledge about species ranges and/or taxonomic relationships. WHO consults experts in a range of fields in order to validate species range data and taxonomy. The range data presented was digitized by Dr Joshua Longbottom and colleagues* based on earlier work by WHO and others. These digital maps have been reviewed by WHO in consultation with external experts in venomous snake distribution and taxonomy, and new or updated data from the following public data sources incorporated to provide the most accurate information available. Users should however consider that our understanding of species ranges is limited to available data, and that species may occur in areas that have not yet been adequately assessed for biodiversity. Factors such as deforestation, changed land use, climate change and other external variables can influence the occurrence of species over time, and therefore these range maps should be viewed as indicative and not absolute. WHO will regularly update the maps as new data becomes available. 

* Longbottom J, et al. Vulnerability to snakebite envenoming: a global mapping of hotspots. Lancet. 2018. 392: 673-684.

2. Antivenom Manufacturers Data

This website gives information, provided to WHO by manufacturers, or sourced from the public domain and peer-reviewed literature, on available antivenom products and their claimed specificity against the venoms of particular snake species. The results of finalised antivenom risk-benefit assessments conducted by WHO are also used to indicate products that WHO has issued recommendations for in relation to particular species of venomous snakes. Information on products still under assessment, products for which assessments are complete (without recommendation) and products that have not been submitted for risk-benefit assessment by WHO is also provided. With the exception of products for which a positive WHO risk-benefit assessment has been issued and published on the WHO website, the information on antivenom preparations in this website does not constitute an endorsement or warranty by WHO of the fitness of any product for a particular purpose, including in regard to its safety and/or efficacy. Furthermore WHO does not warrant or represent that the list is complete or error free; and/or that the products and manufacturing sites listed meet the standards recommended by WHO, and/or that the products listed have obtained regulatory approval for their specified use or any other use in any country of the world, or that their use is otherwise in accordance with the national laws and regulations of any country, including but not limited to patent and/or trademark laws. In addition, WHO wishes to alert procuring agencies that the improper storage, handling and transportation of medicinal products may affect their quality, efficacy and safety. WHO disclaims any and all liability and responsibility for any injury, death, loss, damage or other prejudice of any kind whatsoever that may arise as a result of, or in connection with, the procurement, distribution and use of any product included in the list.

3. Administrative Boundaries

WHO GIS Center for Health, WHO Global Administrative Boundaries. 2021

The World Health Organization (WHO) is an intergovernmental organization that is a specialized agency of the United Nations. WHO has 194 Member States and together they work to improve the health of people around the world. The Organization develops the standards and guidelines that help governments, hospitals and doctors everywhere. When there are new diseases or health problems, WHO can rally the resources and the experts to help address them. The objective of WHO is the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health. WHO produces materials that are used to explain and promote public health. As the photographer and/or copyright holder (“Photographer”), I hereby grant to the WHO a perpetual, non-exclusive, sub-licensable worldwide license to reproduce, publish, disseminate, exhibit and otherwise use my contributed digital photographic images, metadata and captions (“Photographs”) free of any royalty or fee, in any media and any form (including electronic). This includes distribution on the WHO website and third-party sites such as YouTube, Twitter and Facebook. WHO will not sell the Photographs individually or as a collection, but may use the Photographs in publications that may be sold. In addition, users of the WHO website will be permitted to use the images for private study, research, educational or other non-commercial purposes. Any requests that WHO receives to use the Photographs for purposes other than those identified above will be forwarded to the Photographer. Copyright in the contributed Photographs shall remain vested in the Photographer, who retains all rights not specifically granted under this Agreement, except that the Photographer shall not grant any license right with regard to the Photographs to companies dealing with tobacco, alcohol, arms or pharmaceutical products, or for the purpose of advertising commercial products or services. The Photographer’s copyright in the Photographs shall be acknowledged by WHO. The Photographer shall provide the credit line, date and the caption for each Photograph. The Photographer warrants to WHO that the Photographs are his or her original work and in no way a violation of any existing copyright, and that he or she has the power to grant the rights set forth in this agreement. The Photographer further warrants that all necessary permissions have been obtained from owners of any copyrighted materials included in the Photographs, and that the consent has been obtained with regard to the name, likeness, biography, picture and clinical details related to any person, including any deceased person, figuring on the Photographs. The Photographer shall indemnify WHO for legal liability incurred by it on the grounds that the photographs are a violation of these warranties. In the unlikely event of any dispute arising in relation to the interpretation or application of this Agreement, that dispute shall, unless amicably settled, be subject to conciliation. In the event of failure of the latter, the dispute shall be settled by arbitration. The arbitration shall be conducted in accordance with the modalities to be agreed upon by the parties or, in the absence of agreement, in accordance with the Rules of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce. The parties shall accept the arbitral award as final. Nothing in or relating to this Agreement shall be deemed a waiver of any of the privileges and immunities of WHO in conformity with the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 21 November 1947 or otherwise under any national or international law, convention or agreement.

Terms and conditions

The Snakebite Information and Data platform is made available by the World Health Organization to users, who may wish to share photographs in an interactive and collaborative manner. Contributors (authors) are solely responsible for the content they post, and readers are solely responsible for the interpretation of the posted content. Users shall not upload any file which violates any copyright law, international or otherwise, or which would otherwise infringe violate any third party rights, nor may users upload an image or photographs which may be deemed illegal. WHO expressly reserves the right to delete, without warning or notice, any image deemed to be offensive or in violation of the aforementioned text. When uploading a photograph, the contributor agrees that WHO has the right to remove, edit, move or delete any content at any time as they see fit. Contributors are informed that any information they have provided is collected and stored in accordance with WHO’s personal data protection framework. Nothing in or relating to these terms of use shall be deemed a waiver of any of the privileges and immunities of the World Health Organization in conformity with the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations on November 21, 1947 or otherwise under any national or international law, convention or agreement; and/or be construed as submitting WHO to any national court jurisdiction.