Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research (SRH)
Including the Human Reproduction Special Programme (HRP)
About

Health risks of female genital mutilation

Female genital mutilation (FGM) has no health benefits, and it harms girls and women in many ways. The practice involves removing and injuring healthy and normal female genital tissue, interfering with the natural functions of girls' and women's bodies. It can lead to immediate health risks, as well as a variety of long-term complications affecting women’s physical, mental and sexual health and well-being throughout the life-course.

All forms of FGM are associated with increased health risk in the short- and long-term. FGM is a harmful practice and is unacceptable from a human rights as well as a public health perspective, regardless of who performs it. Some health workers perform FGM (medicalization), but WHO is opposed to all forms of FGM and strongly urges health workers to not carry out FGM even when their patient or their patient’s family requests it.

Short-term health risks of FGM

  • Severe pain. Cutting the nerve ends and sensitive genital tissue causes extreme pain. The healing period is also painful.
  • Excessive bleeding (haemorrhage). Can result if the clitoral artery or other blood vessel is cut.
  • Shock. Can be caused by pain, infection and/or haemorrhage.
  • Genital tissue swelling. Due to inflammatory response or local infection.
  • Infections. May spread after the use of contaminated instruments (e.g. use of same instruments in multiple genital mutilation operations), and during the healing period.
  • Urinary problems. These may include urinary retention and pain passing urine. This may be due to tissue swelling, pain or injury to the urethra.
  • Impaired wound healing. Can lead to pain, infections and abnormal scarring.
  • Death. Death can result from infections, including tetanus, as well as haemorrhage that can lead to shock.
  • Mental health problems. The pain, shock and the use of physical force during the event, as well as a sense of betrayal when family members condone and/or organize the practice, are reasons why many women describe FGM as a traumatic event.

Long-term health risks of FGM (occurring at any time during life)

Pain. Due to tissue damage and scarring that may result in trapped or damaged nerve endings.

Infections:

  • Chronic genital infections. With consequent chronic pain, and vaginal discharge and itching. Cysts, abscesses and genital ulcers may also appear.
  • Chronic reproductive tract infections. May result in chronic back and pelvic pain.
  • Urinary tract infections. If not treated, urinary tract infections can ascend to the kidneys, potentially resulting in severe complications. An increased risk of repeated urinary tract infections is well documented in both girls and adult women who have undergone FGM.Painful urination. Due to obstruction of the urethra and recurrent urinary tract infections.

Vaginal problems. Discharge, itching, bacterial vaginosis and other infections.

Menstrual problems. Obstruction of the vaginal opening may lead to painful menstruation (dysmenorrhea) and difficulty in passing menstrual blood, particularly among women with Type III FGM.

Excessive scar tissue (keloids). Excessive scar tissue can form at the site of the cutting.

Sexual health problems. FGM damages anatomic structures that are directly involved in female sexual function, and can have an effect on women’s sexual health and well-being. Removal of, or damage to, highly sensitive genital tissue, especially the clitoris, may affect sexual sensitivity and lead to sexual problems, such as decreased sexual desire and pleasure, pain during sex, difficulty during penetration, decreased lubrication during intercourse, and reduced sexual pleasure. Scar formation, pain and traumatic memories associated with the procedure can also be related to sexual dysfunction.

Childbirth complications (obstetric complications). FGM is associated with an increased risk of caesarean section, postpartum haemorrhage, episiotomy, difficult labour, obstetric tears/lacerations, instrumental delivery, prolonged labour, and extended maternal hospital stay. 

Obstetric fistula. A direct association between FGM and obstetric fistula has not been established. However, given the causal relationship between prolonged and obstructed labour and fistula, and the fact that FGM is also associated with prolonged and obstructed labour, it is reasonable to presume that both conditions could be linked in women living with FGM.

Perinatal risks. Obstetric complications can result in a higher incidence of infant resuscitation at delivery and intrapartum stillbirth and neonatal death.

Mental health problems. Studies have shown that girls and women who have undergone FGM are more likely to experience post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, depression and somatic (physical) complaints (e.g. aches and pains) with no organic cause.

Even though FGM may be accepted and carry cultural significance in some settings, the practice is always a violation of human rights which can adversely affect the health and well-being of girls and women.