Preparing and preventing epidemics and pandemics

The number of high-threat infectious hazards continues to rise; some of these are re-emerging and others are new. While outbreaks of vaccine-preventable infectious diseases, such as meningococcal disease, yellow fever and cholera, can have disastrous effects in areas with limited health infrastructure and resources, and where timely detection and response is difficult.

WHO develops global strategies for the prevention and control of epidemic-prone diseases, such as yellow fever, cholera and influenza. With partners from a wide range of technical, scientific and social fields, WHO brings together all globally available resources to counter these high-threat infectious hazards and scale these strategies to regional and country levels. 

Flagship global strategies include: 

  • the Eliminate Yellow Fever Epidemics strategy 2017-2026;
  • Ending Cholera: a Global Roadmap to 2030;
  • the Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Framework; and 
  • the Global Strategy for Influenza 2018-2030.

WHO is also the secretariat for the governance of global emergency stockpiles, including the International Coordinating Group on Vaccine Provision, which manages and coordinates the provision of emergency vaccine supplies and antibiotics to countries during major outbreaks.

Our work

Measuring the effectiveness and impact of public health and social measures

Measuring the effectiveness and impact of public health and social measures

Overview

Public health and social measures (PHSM) refer to non-pharmaceutical interventions implemented by individuals, communities and governments to protect the health and well-being of communities affected by health emergencies. PHSM reduce the risk and scale of transmission of infectious diseases by reducing transmission-relevant exposures and/or making them safer. Examples of PHSM include hand washing, mask-wearing, physical distancing, school and business measures, modifications of mass gatherings and international travel and trade measures.

PHSM are often the first and sometimes the only intervention available at the onset of an outbreak when effective vaccines and therapeutics are not (yet) available or equitably distributed. PHSM play a critical role throughout the different stages of health emergencies and act in concert with medical countermeasures.

Recent health emergencies revealed, however, that individuals and communities experienced unintended negative consequences of PHSM (intervention burden) above and beyond the burden of health and health inequities by COVID-19 itself. This intervention burden includes unemployment, interrupted education, domestic violence and slowing economic productivity. People living in vulnerable conditions disproportionately experienced this intervention burden and hence highlighted the critical importance of social protection policies and other mitigation measures. 

The WHO PHSM initiative on measuring the effectiveness and impact of public health and social measures (PHSM) during health emergencies aims to: 

  • accelerate multidisciplinary, multisectoral research on the effectiveness of PHSM, unintended negative consequences and implementation strategies; 
  • strengthen evidence-informed and context-specific PHSM decision-making; and 
  • expand the effective and equitable implementation of PHSM alongside medical countermeasures in health emergency preparedness and response for emerging and re-emerging infectious hazards.

 

Publications

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Meeting of the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization, September 2025: Conclusions and recommendations

The Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE) met on 22-25 September 2025. This report summarizes their discussions, conclusions, and...

Strategic plan for coronavirus disease threat management: advancing integration, sustainability, and equity, 2025–2030

The WHO strategic plan for coronavirus disease threat management sets out the global framework for the sustained, integrated and evidence-based management...

Health risks of air pollution in Europe: HRAPIE-2 project: updated guidance on concentration–response functions for health risk assessment of air pollution in the WHO European Region

Air pollution remains the leading environmental health risk both regionally and globally, contributing to reduced life expectancy and a wide range of noncommunicable...

Risk evaluation of circulating Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) clades and lineages

Updated: 19 November 2025This document summarizes discussions during a Technical Advisory Group on Virus Evolution (TAG-VE) meeting held on 2 June 2025,...